<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.2d1 20170631//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<ArticleSet>
<Article>
<Journal>
<PublisherName>ejsss</PublisherName>
<JournalTitle>ELECTRONIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL AND STRATEGIC STUDIES</JournalTitle>
<PISSN/>
<EISSN/>
<Volume-Issue>Volume 5 Issue 2</Volume-Issue>
<PartNumber/>
<IssueTopic>Multidisciplinary</IssueTopic>
<IssueLanguage>English</IssueLanguage>
<Season>August-September 2024</Season>
<SpecialIssue>N</SpecialIssue>
<SupplementaryIssue>N</SupplementaryIssue>
<IssueOA>Y</IssueOA>
<PubDate>
<Year>2024</Year>
<Month>09</Month>
<Day>30</Day>
</PubDate>
<ArticleType>Strategic Studies</ArticleType>
<ArticleTitle>Comparative analysis of the maritime ISR capabilities of India and China in the IOR</ArticleTitle>
<SubTitle/>
<ArticleLanguage>English</ArticleLanguage>
<ArticleOA>Y</ArticleOA>
<FirstPage>295</FirstPage>
<LastPage>329</LastPage>
<AuthorList>
<Author>
<FirstName>Yashodhan</FirstName>
<LastName>Mirwankar</LastName>
<AuthorLanguage>English</AuthorLanguage>
<Affiliation/>
<CorrespondingAuthor>N</CorrespondingAuthor>
<ORCID/>
</Author>
</AuthorList>
<DOI>10.47362/EJSSS.2024.5212</DOI>
<Abstract>Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance systems (ISR) have been playing a significant role in providing robust situational awareness of the maritime domain. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the ISR systems of India and China in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), a region of immense geopolitical significance and a theatre of power projection for both the countries. After tracing the evolution of ISR from ancient time to modern era, the study underscores the critical role of ISR in maritime security and strategic advantage, particularly in the IOR. The paper finds that, in accordance with its Two Ocean strategy, China has been expanding its ISR infrastructure in the IOR. Chinese naval activities, including submarine deployment, research vessels suspected of conducting covert surveillance in the eastern Indian Ocean, classified use of its satellite systems, use of air based ISR systems as force multipliers, and acquisition of bases in the IOR has potential to alter power dynamics in the IOR. These developments allow China to exert geopolitical influence and potentially challenge India’s traditionally dominant position in the IOR. The paper further delves into examining factors influencing the ISR force structure of India and China, including defence expenditure, military modernisation drive, development in Defence Industrial Base (DIB), and the role of command-and-control structure. Finally, this research tries to provide recommendations for India to enhance its ISR infrastructure, emphasizing the need to invest in HUMINT and TECHINT capabilities and enhanced inter-agency coordination. Overall, the paper provides a comprehensive assessment of the ISR landscape in the IOR.</Abstract>
<AbstractLanguage>English</AbstractLanguage>
<Keywords>ISR,situational awareness,IOR,India,China,HUMINT,TECHINT,satellite systems,air based assets,ocean surface and subsurface fleet,DIB</Keywords>
<URLs>
<Abstract>https://ejsss.net.in/ubijournal-v1copy/journals/abstract.php?article_id=15394&title=Comparative analysis of the maritime ISR capabilities of India and China in the IOR</Abstract>
</URLs>
<References>
<ReferencesarticleTitle>References</ReferencesarticleTitle>
<ReferencesfirstPage>16</ReferencesfirstPage>
<ReferenceslastPage>19</ReferenceslastPage>
<References>Akayima, M. (2018). Maritime Security in the Indo-Pacific. In S. Chandra, and; B. Ghoshal, The Indo-Pacific Axis: Peace and Prosperity and Conflict (pp. 75-76). London and New York: Routledge. Retrieved January 2024
Akram, S. (2024, February 4). World’s Top Exporters And Importers - Updated 2024. Retrieved February 2024, from World Options Web Site: https://uk.worldoptions.com/news/worlds-top-exporters-and-importers#:~:text=Exporters%20In%20Detail-,CHINA,circuits%20and%20other%20computer%20components
Bhuvesha, B. K. (2023, October 12). China’s Growing Capability in Underwater Warfare: Implications for the Indo-Pacific. Retrieved March 2024, from CENJOWS Web Site: https://cenjows.in/chinas-growing-capability-in-underwater-warfare-implications-for-the-indo-pacific/#:~:text=In%20parallel%20with%20offensive%20underwater,power%20in%20its%20underwater%20domain.
Bitzinger, R. (2015, October). Comparing Defense Industry Reforms in India and China. Asian Politics and Policy, 531-553. Retrieved May 2024
Blasko, D. J. (1999). The People’s Liberation Army in the Information Age. In J. C. Mulvenon, and; R. H. Yang (Ed.). (pp. 258-288). RAND Corporation. Retrieved May 2024, from https://www.rand.org/pubs/conf_proceedings/CF145.html
Bommakanti, K. (2018). India and Chinaand;#39;s Space and Naval Capabilities - A Comparative Analysis. ORF Occasional Report. Retrieved January 2024
Capt Mahan, A. T. (1987). The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783. New York, USA: Dover Publications Inc. Retrieved February 2024
Chinese Academy of Sciences. (2022, March 17). Scientists Develop Lateral-line-inspired Underwater Sensor. Retrieved May 2024, from CASC Web Site: https://english.cas.cn/print_2019/index.shtml?docurl=https://english.cas.cn/newsroom/research_news/chem/202203/t20220317_302389.shtml
CNSA. (n.d.). China High-resolution Earth Observation System(CHEOS). Retrieved March 2024, from China National Space Observation Web Site: https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465715/n6465716/c6840357/content.html
Colley, C. (2021, April 2). A Future Chinese Indian Ocean Fleet? Retrieved March 2024, from War on the Rocks Web Site : https://warontherocks.com/2021/04/a-future-chinese-indian-ocean-fleet/
CSMI Technology Service. (n.d.). What Is Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance? Retrieved February 7, 2024, from CSMI Technology Services: https://csmi.com/what-is-isr/
Dahm, M. J. (2020). Special Mission Aircraft and Unmanned Systems. The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory LLC. Retrieved March 2024
Defense Systems Information Analysis Center. (2018, December 17). China Reveals Prototype Configuration of Jam Resistant and Counter-Stealth ”Quantum Radar”. Retrieved May 2024, from DSAIC Web SIte: https://dsiac.org/articles/china-reveals-prototype-configuration-of-jam-resistant-and-counter-stealth-quantum-radar/
Dikshit, P. (2004, March 22). The Value of the Phalcon AWACS for India. Retrieved April 2024, from Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies: https://www.ipcs.org/comm_select.php?articleNo=1347#:~:text=The%20benefits%20of%20the%20%E2%80%9COver,to%20ranges%20of%20500%20km
DoD. (2021, November). DoD Dictionary of MIlitary Associated Terms. Retrieved February 7, 2024, from Federation of American Scientists: https://irp.fas.org/doddir/dod/dictionary.pdf
DRDO. (2017, March). Technologies for Underwater Surveillance Systems. Retrieved May 2024, from DRDO Web Site: https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/sites/default/files/technology-focus-documrnt/TF_Mar_2017_WEB.pdf
DRDO. (2021, April). Netra: The Indigeneous AEWand;C System. Retrieved April 2024, from DRDO Web Site: https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/sites/default/files/technology-focus-documrnt/TF_April_2021.pdf
DRDO. (n.d.). Rustom-1. Retrieved April 2024, from DRDO Web Site: https://www.drdo.gov.in/drdo/rustom-1
eoPortal. (2017, January 13). QUESS. Retrieved April 2024, from eoPortal Web Site: https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/quess#background
eoPortal. (2019, April 3). EMISAT. Retrieved April 2024, from eoPortal Web Site: https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions/emisat#emisat-electromagnetic-intelligence-gathering-satellite
eoPortal. (n.d.). Satellite Missions catalogue. Retrieved March 2024, from eoPortal Web Site: https://www.eoportal.org/satellite-missions
Federation of American Scientists. (1997, November 27). FAS Intelligence Resource Program - Coco Islands. Retrieved February 2024, from Federation of American Scientists Web Site: https://irp.fas.org/world/china/facilities/coco.htm#:~:text=Coco%20Islands,installation%20in%20Myanmar%20%5BBurma%5D
Flight Global. (2023). World Air Forces 2024. Flight Global. Retrieved April 2024, from https://www.flightglobal.com/download?ac=98881
Funaiole, M. P., Hart, B., and; Powers-Riggs, A. (2024, January 26). CSIS Hidden Reach. Retrieved February 1, 2024, from CSIS Web site: https://features.csis.org/hiddenreach/china-indian-ocean-research-vessels/
Henry, D. J. (2016). ISR Systems – Past, Present, and Future. SPIE Defence + Security. Baltimore: SPIE Digital Library. Retrieved February 2024
Hoole, R. H. (2020). China’s ISR Threat to US Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations. Marine Corps University . Quantico: USMC Command and Staff College. Retrieved January 2024
IDRW. (2024, May 3). India to fast track development of next-gen XLUUV for underwater warfare. Retrieved May 2024, from IDRW Web Site: https://idrw.org/india-to-fast-track-development-of-next-gen-xluuv-for-underwater-warfare/
IIT Madras. (2023, May 10). IIT Madras, Defence Research and Development Organisation develop sensor technology for underwater communications. Retrieved May 2024, from IIT Madras Web Site: https://www.iitm.ac.in/happenings/press-releases-and-coverages/iit-madras-defence-research-and-development-organisation
Indian Navy. (n.d.). UAV Heron, UAV Searcher. Retrieved April 2024, from Indian Navy Web Site: https://www.indiannavy.nic.in/content/uav-heron-uav-searcher
International Institute for Strategic Studies. (2024). The Military Balance 2024. London: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Retrieved April 2024
ISRO. (2017, June 29). GSAT-17. Retrieved April 2024, from ISRO Web Site: https://www.isro.gov.in/GSAT_17.html
Kovarik, V. (2011). Imagery Intelligence (IMINT). Brno: Faculty of Military Technology, University of Defence. Retrieved March 2024
McCabe, T. R. (2021). Chinese Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Systems. Journal of Indo-Pacific Studies. Retrieved January 2024
McNicholas, M. (2008). Maritime Security - An Introduction. Oxford: Elsevier Inc. Retrieved January 2024
NTI. (2023, March 6). China Submarine Capabilities. Retrieved March 2024, from NTI Web Site: https://www.nti.org/analysis/articles/china-submarine-capabilities/#:~:text=Yuan%2DClass%20(Type%20039A%20or,to%2020%20knots%20when%20submerged.and;text=Their%20weapons%20systems%20include%20torpedoes%20and%20anti%2Dship%20missiles.
Rear Admiral Asthana, M. (2023, October 15). Assessing the Indian Ocean Region for secure trade navigation - Nitisara Value Chain Management. Retrieved February 2024, from LinkedIn Website: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/assessing-indian-ocean-region-secure-trade-navigation#:~:text=In%202022%2C%20the%20Indian%20Ocean,critical%20waterways%20and%20natural%20resources
Ryan, M. (2022). War Transformed : The Future of Twenty-First-Century Great Power Conflict. Annapolis, Maryland, USA: Naval Institute Press. Retrieved March 2024
Satcom Industry Association. (n.d.). Rethinking (IMINT) - Image Intelligence Strategy from Space. Retrieved April 2024, from SIA- India Web Site: https://www.sia-india.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/SatSure_white-paper.pdf
Scrofani, J., Williamson, W., Mimih, J., and; Waltz, E. (2023). Naval ISR Fusion Principles, Operations and Technologies. Artech House. Retrieved March 2024
Singh, A. (2016, June 15). Indiaand;#39;s "undersea wall" in the eastern Indian Ocean. Retrieved May 2024, from ORF Web Site: https://www.orfonline.org/research/indias-undersea-wall-in-the-eastern-indian-ocean
SIPRI. (2024, April 22). Global military spending surges amid war, rising tensions and insecurity. Retrieved May 2024, from SIPRI Web Site: https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2024/global-military-spending-surges-amid-war-rising-tensions-and-insecurity
Smagh, N. S. (2020). Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Design for Great Power Competition. Washington D.C.: Congressional Research Service. Retrieved January 2024
Spykman, N. J. (1944). The Geography of the Peace. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. Retrieved January 2024
The State Council - The Peopleand;#39;s Republic Of China. (2015, May 27). Chinaand;#39;s Military Strategy (full text). Retrieved February 2024, from The State Council - The Peopleand;#39;s Republic Of China Web Site: https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2015/05/27/content_281475115610833.htm
White, J. T. (2020, June). China’s Indian Ocean ambitions. Retrieved February 2024 , from Brookings Web Site: https://www.brookings.edu/articles/chinas-indian-ocean-ambitions/
Annexure A
List of tables
Table 1: ISR progression from early age to 17th century
Table 2: ISR progression from 18th century to World War 1
Table 3: ISR progression from World War 2 to Cold War
Table 4: ISR progression from Cold War until today
Table 5: SIGINT satellite systems developed by India and China
Table 6: IMINT satellite systems developed by India and China
Table 7: Advanced satellite systems developed by India and China
Table 8: AEWand;C programs developed by India and China
Table 9: ELINT aircrafts of India and China
Table 10: UAVs of India and China
Table 11: PLAN and IN surface fleet
Table 12: Current PLAN and IN submarines
*****
Annexure B
List of figures
Figure 1: TCPED Information Chain
Figure 2: Array of Multi Domain ISR Capabilities</References>
</References>
</Journal>
</Article>
</ArticleSet>